Universal Expositions are held to show the achievements and innovations of nations through the presentation of cutting edge innovations and demonstrating modernity to the world at large. While varying in theme and character, they are consistently moments of national and municipal identity-building.

-emerged out of industrial exhibitions

-which emerged out of the Industrial Revolution

-first one occurred in Prague in 1791

-aimed at promoting Bohemian identity by displaying the industry of the land

-proved largely successful

-today Prague hosts the Bohemian Industrial Exposition

-an annual event to present the achievements of national industry

-and promoting unity between Germans and Czechs in the Kingdom of Bohemia

-France made it bigger

-French Revolution period of immense uncertainty and chaos

-Directory sought to close it by sponsoring industrial expos

-to show the root of the French Republic is not revolutionary violence but industry

-to rival the British

-1798 Industrial Expo

-manufacturers from across France present products

-from scientific equipment to china to glasswork to silk

-best given awards in form of gold medals

-following overthrow of Directory, events didn't end

-next one held in 1803, another in 1805, and then Council of State declared they would be held every three years

-escalating with Industrial Revolution truly underway in the Flanders and Rhineland regions

-celebrate with grand world expo

-guests from across Europe were invited to attend and even present some of their own products

-held in the Champ de Mars

-centered around the innovative Temple des Fenêtres

-constructed with innovative techniques entirely with glass and iron

-became a symbol of the era

-however, visitors from reactionary states regarded it as an unnatural republican abomination.

-made permanent and the centre of the annual French National Exposition

-other grand, temporary buildings with more typical French exuberance

-extraordinary success and it impressed many.

-British Isles not one to be outshone

-outbreak of war in Europe led to it deciding to delay its plans

-only a few decades after the Popular Revolution and under a decade of the end of the disorder of the Headless State period

-aimed at exhibiting a newfound stability to the world at large

-centrepiece, Fox Palace, was a glass building twice as large as the Temple des Fenêtres

-brought along were so many products that further temporary buildings needed to be constructed to house them

-along the Thames, the Monument to the Charter of Liberty and Security

-a 152 metre victory column in honor of the Revolution's most tangible achievement

-became the tallest structure in the world

-proved a large success and improved Britain's reputation as a whole

-In the eyes of Europe, no longer was post-revolutionary Britain a land of highwaymen and wild militias

-instead a great manufacturing shop aloof from the mainland

-seeking to outdo Britain in turn

-held in city of Charlemagne which has high German pop as pointed refutation of German irredentism

-some German states boycotted

-French govt gave political exiles special pavilions

-but many German visitors still came

-had profound effect on city, helping to make it second city of France

-presaged migrations that made it cultural melting pot

-led the Austrian government to retaliate

-in great display of German unity against the French

-spotlight on the rising industries of lands considered Germany - the Eastern Ruhr, Saxony and (more controversially) Bohemia

-with Austria seeking to serve as its head

-above all with the Reichsadler flying over the Palast der Industrie.

-held due to sour grapes from Habsburgs excluding Prussia from "pan-German" expo

-spotlighted industry

-and made sure to include products from Prussian Poles and Lithuanians

-efforts to undermine Austrian pan-Germanism by inviting other German states to erect their own pavilions generally failed

-but did showcase Prussian industry well

-held to outdo France

-successfully demonstrated the great advances from the 1855 Festival

-even reused Fox Palace, as striking as ever

-In honor of the Mazzinian constitutional revisions that turned it from a confederacy of French-aligned sister republics into a fiercely independent United States of Italy

-and to assert its independence from France

-held in ancient capital of Rome, not in metropolis of Milan

-celebration of Italy's history along with promise of future

-Palazzo della Repubblica

-seamlessly joined neoclassicalism with iron modernity

-condemned by Pope in exile in Madrid

-many Catholic countries refused to send pavilions

-nevertheless, shows new Italy breaking away from being France's vassal to power of its own

-United States of America was mired in US's Wars > American Civil War (1869-76)

-its beginning with a disputed election threw the entire American experiment in doubt

-but victory by Constitutionalists, flight of Richmondites from Mobile across Water, destruction of slavery renewed it

-held in Philly in honor of its role as capital both in first years of the republic and first year and half of civil war

-and as a slightly belated mass celebration of Centennial

-w/ > 300 buildings celebrating virtually every facet of American public life

-and many innovations that transformed American life in the Reconstruction Era

-most famously Centennial Tower

-a 305-metre tower of iron

-framed by cone of lattice with observation deck at the top

-roof shaped like a Phrygian cap in honor of the Civil War

-above that an American flag

-also served as a great lamp illuminating the city, many upset sleepers

-firmly patriotic event fully decked in purple flags and Phrygian caps used as emblems by Comunero Clubs and Justice Party

-but best remembered for assassination of American Presidents > 1877-1879 John Wentworth (Justice) †

-Wentworth shaking hands with member of public when man shot at his chest

-killing him instantly

-veterans stopped him from fleeing

-when questioned he was revealed to be a sympathizer with Congress Over The Water

-part of a terrorist cell calling itself the "Secret Service of the True Government of the United States"

-in its wake, frenzied crowds tore apart the temporary buildings

-festival came to an end, and Philadelphia attained infamy despite initial success

-despite sad ending, prev expo opened door to other expos across the pond

-despite Montreal's grandeur over BNA, Lower Canada was facing a moral crisis

-expansion of Upper Canada to the Rockies and talk of it getting rest of Northwest made Lower Canada feel like a small country

-when people internationally spoke of Canadians, they now meant Anglo Upper Canadians

-1883 expo was attempt to fix this crisis

-int'l visitors were impressed at extravagance of festival and also city itself

-as modern and industrializing as any great American city

-did not succeed in taking back name Canadian but still remembered as high point

-Batavian Republic recently broke its alliance with France, refused to join it in French Wars > Fourth French War (1880-4)

-inspires war scares, sudden anxieties of defencelessness

-govt plans expo of its own

-showed products from all around the Dutch Empire, from Kaapenaar wine to Javanese coffee to Guianese sugar

-shows desired aloofness

-and that it wants to be a large country

-US still angry over Centennial Festival

-US's Wars > Antillian War (1880-4) forced Congress Over The Water from Havana to Belem

-but had not erased a sitting president was killed by a Richmondite terrorist

-Philly sought to show its defiance, held this against it

-holds festival in honor of centennial of constitution

-streets patrolled by new Civil Guard

-no assassin came after American Presidents > 1885-1891 John A. Logan (Justice) †

-and Centennial Tower re-unveiled to the world

-along with new double-size replica of Liberty Bell, the Centennial Bell

-grand success, restores the US's reputation

-centennial of French Revolution

-despite malaise following French Wars > Fourth French War (1880-4), something to celebrate grandly

-celebration of revolution and French nationhood's achievements

-storming of the Bastille re-enacted with burning of wood replica

-to shudders of monarchies of Europe

-grand Marianne statue installed

-much more centered around nationalist, not universalist, aspects of French Revolution

-with many German visitors met with widespread scorn

-held with Europe consumed in French Wars > Fifth French War (1890-5)

-commemorates 400th anniversary of Columbus' voyage

-celebrated the rapid growth of San Francisco

-and its transformation from burned city from retreating Spanish troops in 1867 to great cosmopolitan and commercial center of nation

-feuding with Foxton

-feuding with Sydney

-despite loss of Hungary, held as celebration of German culture

-to assert Bohemian identity against the new German behemoth it was now tied to

-in celebration of its reclaimed independence

-Expos were getting out of control and becoming unprofitable

-in spirit of era's growing internationalism, nations formed the International Forum Committee for World Expos (Comité du Forum International pour les Expositions Universelles; CFIEU)

-to control rights to hold festival

-under augeis of International Forum

-growing city of the west

-served as battlefield during Civil War, now booming, modern city, second-largest city

-which put US's Wars > American Civil War (1869-76) behind it

-with city detaching itself with messy South, and it permanently ending following US's Wars > Intervention in Grao-Para (1894-5)

-unveils Union Tower, made of revolutionary Steel production

-6 arch lattice bridges merged together and topped with a mast

-topped with mast, and tallest building (height of 343 m)

-painted patriotic purple in honor of the Civil War

-makes it a great national monument

-perhaps most famous World Expo ever, defines city having become truly grand

-and massive success

-Though neighbouring Buenaventura planned an Expo in San Francisco for 1907, the 1906 earthquake stopped it

-Prussia capitalizes

-a full-throated refutation of the Habsburgs' leadership of Germany and a celebration of Prussia's many diverse cultures

-visitors presented with mass variety of peoples

-from Prussogermans to Poles to Lithuanians to Silesians

-truly vast industrial capacity of Silesia built up presented to rest of world

-success which shows certain narratives of harmoniousness under its king

-Punjab attempted to hold it

-to celebrate the Punjabi Revolution that turned it from a feudal monarchy into a modern centralized Punjabi Republic

-and silence those calling its new regime a military dictatorship

-reluctance by CFIEU for racial reasons as much as shudders of its violence

-held in Lahore

-impressive modernization

-new steel highrises, neoclassical buildings, impress many

-citizens in fine European suits

-new coffee culture

-profound effect

-particularly from British Raj whose subjects hoped for similar modernization

-The 1906 earthquake flattened the city almost entirely, and its economic shockwaves devastated Buenaventura's economy

-the city was reconstructed larger and better

-suburbs annexed, new immigrants

-iconic neoclassical midrises emerge

-celebrated with 1915 expo

-few blocks of Presidio made its site

-with grand buildings, extravagant pavilions and palaces

-new streetcars, electrified

-unveiling of great Statue of Queen Califia

-from the 16th century fantasy novel from which she, and name California, came from

-intended to show her as the "Spirit of California", but instead it quickly became a symbol of Buenaventura as a whole

-still regarded as one of the defining moments in Buenaventuran history

-grand recovery

-neighborhood around it known as Expo today